Throughout history, women have played crucial roles in dealing with death, from caring for the deceased to guiding the living through the complexities of mortality. Interestingly, the attributes associated with these roles often overlapped with the stereotypes of witchcraft. This article explores the fascinating connection between women, mortuary work, and witchcraft accusations across various cultures and time periods.

The Women of Ancient Egypt: Guardians of the Afterlife

In ancient Egypt, women held esteemed positions as "wab” or “sem” priestesses, responsible for preparing the deceased for their journey into the afterlife. They were responsible for preparing the body for mummification. They would remove the internal organs, dry out the body, and wrap it in linen bandages. They would also perform important rituals and prayers to ensure the deceased had a safe journey into the afterlife. But that's not all! They were also responsible for preparing the tomb and making offerings to the gods. They would decorate the tomb with paintings and hieroglyphs and place items inside that the deceased would need in the afterlife, like food and personal items. So their role was much broader than just preparing the body for burial.These priestesses served as intermediaries between the living and the dead, communicating with spirits and channeling their wisdom and knowledge. Their role was respected and powerful, highlighting women's connection to both life and death.

The Celtic Traditions: Women as Shamans and Healers

Celtic and pre-Christian European cultures also saw women in significant roles related to death. Women served as shamans, healers, and caretakers of the dying. They were believed to possess supernatural powers and were revered for their wisdom. However, with the rise of Christianity, perceptions of these roles would undergo a profound transformation.Many of the traditional beliefs and practices related to death were seen as pagan and superstitious. Christian priests and bishops sought to replace the role of women as spiritual intermediaries with their own rituals and services. Women were gradually pushed out of these roles, and their status in society began to decline. There were many efforts to discredit these women as witches and sorcerers, and they were often persecuted and accused of crimes like heresy. This transformation had a profound effect on gender roles and the status of women in Europe. In addition to the changing status of women, the Christianization of Europe also had a big impact on how death was viewed and experienced. Before Christianity, death was seen as a natural part of the cycle of life, and it was often seen as a time of celebration and remembrance. But with the rise of Christianity, death began to be associated with fear and punishment. The focus of funerary rites shifted from honoring the deceased to emphasizing the afterlife and salvation. This shift created a very different experience of death for people in Europe.

The Women of Ancient Greece and Rome

Much like numerous pre-industrial societies, the Graeco-Roman World universally embraced the belief in magic, seamlessly integrating it into the fabric of daily existence. In this realm, magic was not an esoteric concept but rather an integral aspect of everyday life. People routinely attributed calamities to practitioners of the mystical arts, often referring to them as witches capable of what modern terminology would classify as black magic.

Indeed, Greek literature offers numerous depictions of women delving into the realm of sorcery. Going as far back as Homer, ancient Greek texts contain references to female figures wielding enchantments. Notably, Hecate held a position of reverence as the goddess of magic and witchcraft. Greek witches were often characterized by their perceived sexual freedom and predatory nature. One prominent example is Circe, who, in her pursuit of Odysseus, transformed his crew into swine and held the hero captive on her island. Circe, like other witches, practiced the art of "pharmakon," concocting brews and potions. Another figure in Greek mythology, Lamia, turned into a child-eating monster after her children were slain by Hera, contributing to the origins of tales about sorceresses devouring children.

In contrast to the Greeks, the Romans displayed even greater apprehension regarding witchcraft. The Twelve Tables of Roman law expressly prohibited the casting of harmful spells affecting crops, livestock, or individuals. Witchcraft was deemed a capital offense in the Roman world, and witches faced severe punishments such as burning or burial alive. The use of curse-tablets, believed to inflict harm or curses on victims, was prevalent. These tablets were often obtained from women who could be interpreted as witches. In the Roman context, many witches were associated with the creation of poisons. Women who crafted potions and perfumes could be accused of witchcraft. Some Latin sources even mentioned women engaging in necromancy or shapeshifting. Both male and female witches or magicians existed in Rome and faced persecution, especially when accused of casting spells against the emperor. As Pliny the Younger noted, fear of witches and their enchantments was widespread, leading to the inception of the earliest recorded witch hunts during the Imperial period, long before the Christian era of witch burnings began.

However there was one valid form of death a “career.” In both Greek and Roman cultures, that of professional mourner. These mourners, known as "keeners" or "mourners" in Greek and "libitinaria" in Roman, held a profound significance in their societies. Hailing from families with generations of experience, they were highly esteemed for their expertise in conducting burial rituals and preparing the deceased for their final resting place. In the Roman context, libitinaria played a pivotal role in the funeral process. Their duties encompassed not only tending to the deceased's body but also facilitating communication between the living and the spirits of the departed. This vital function was seen as an essential and sacred duty, reflected in their respected status and well-earned compensation. The emergence of these professional mourners paralleled the late Roman Republic's transformation, marked by the rise of a professional artisan class and growing wealth inequality. While their close association with death may have sparked some suspicion, it pales in comparison to the intense witch hunts of later centuries. Instead, they were perceived as guardians of the city's well-being, ensuring proper burial and reverence for the departed, a testament to their invaluable role in upholding the community's health and purity.

The Fall of the Roman Empire and the Emergence of New Movements

The fall of the Roman Empire marked a period of upheaval and societal change in Europe. Emerging religious sects like the Cathars, Waldensians, and Bogomils challenged the Catholic Church's authority. Some of these sects were far more egalitarian than the Catholic Church and women were allowed to played vital roles in these movements, often as leaders and preachers. This challenged traditional gender roles and posed a threat to the Church's control. For example, the Cathars had female priests called "parfaites." These women could perform mass, hear confessions, and even perform baptisms. This challenged the traditional idea of a male priesthood and the Church's patriarchal structure. But it also led to backlash from the Church, which saw these sects as a threat to their authority.

And as a really quick segway, perhaps you’re thinking, whoa whoa whoa Amber. You’re talking about funerals, magic, and now a Baptism?! Seriously a Baptism is a religious ritual how is that witchcraft or magic?! Well, hold onto your butts…

A ‘religious ritual’ is a set of actions or words that are performed according to a prescribed order, and which have a spiritual or religious significance. Rituals can include things like prayer, chanting, processions, and so on. But the key idea is that they're meant to be done in a specific way, with a specific intent, and they're meant to have a spiritual effect. They are recognized as valid by the wider society.

A ‘magic ritual’ is a set of actions or words that are performed with a specific intent. They can include things like prayer, chanting, processions, and so on. They're meant to be done in a specific way, with a specific intent, and they're meant to have a spiritual effect. They are “technically” not recognized as valid by the wider society.

Annnnnd what exactly is a Baptism? A ritual that is meant to confer divine grace and protection. Sounds an awful lot like witchcraft to me. It’s just a widely accepted magic spell folks.

The point here is that up until now we had seen women embraced by society as people able to talk to the spirit world. People who could confer with our ancestors and the Gods. They helped with death and there was a natural balance in the roles that were prescribed.

That was, until the Catholic Church came along and realized that whoa whoa whoa. This was a job for the church! Because if you can control the life and death of a society-well-you can control society. And if you know anything about history, you know they were prepared to do so, by any means necessary.

And if you think this is bonkers and that Christian values don’t still control society, well you haven’t worked in cremation, and you probably don’t have a uterus you’re worried about losing autonomy over.

The Persecution of Heretical Movements

In the late Middle Ages, the Catholic Church began to view these new spiritual movements as a serious threat to its authority. The Church saw these movements as heretical and contrary to its teachings, and it began to crack down on them with a series of inquisitions and campaigns of persecution. And yes, women were often the primary targets of these campaigns, because they occupied significant spiritual roles in these movements. The Church also viewed women as more susceptible to "superstition" and more easily led astray, so it sought to suppress them.

A primary target was the Cathars, a dualist sect, that believed the material world was evil and the spiritual world was good. They also believed that women could be spiritual leaders and they rejected many of the Church's teachings. The Inquisition against them lasted for over 30 years, during which time thousands of Cathars were burned at the stake and many more were exiled or imprisoned. And Cathar women were often the target of particular cruelty and violence.

The first known execution of Cathars was in 1002, with ten burnt at the stake. Another Cathar was condemned and burnt in Cambrai in 1077; several heretics were imprisoned then grabbed by a mob and burnt in Soissons in 1114; and Peter de Bruys was condemned and burnt in Saint-Gilles, 1126. The Church’s Council of Tours denounced the advance of Catharism in 1163 any by 1180 the fervor of hatred was at an all time high due to the preaching of Pope Alexander III.

One of the most significant examples of this is the Inquisition against the Cathars, which was launched in 1208 by Pope Innocent III.

However, Cathar women weren’t the only ones in trouble during this time. There were other inquisitions happening in Europe around the same time as the Cathar inquisition. One of the most infamous was the Spanish Inquisition, which began in 1478. The Spanish Inquisition was much larger in scope than the Cathar inquisition, and it targeted not only religious minorities but also political opponents of the Spanish monarchy. There were also inquisitions in Italy and Germany during this time, though they were not as well-known or widespread as the Spanish Inquisition. The inquisitions all shared a common goal: to root out heresy and impose religious uniformity.

The Black Plague

Wondering about the 200 year time gap between furrowing out the Cathars and moving on to the Spanish Inquisition? Well, with our recent and ongoing plague, it may not be hard for you to close your eyes and picture, The Black Plague, which swept through Europe in the mid-14th century. The plague had a devastating impact on the population, killing up to half of the people in some areas. The Black Death had a huge impact on religion and the way people viewed women. The loss of life caused by the plague created a climate of fear and superstition. Many people blamed the plague on the devil, and they became more suspicious of anyone who was considered "different," including religious minorities and women. The idea of witchcraft became more prevalent, and it was often associated with women. This was because many women had become heads of households due to the loss of men during the plague. This shift in gender roles made people suspicious of women, who were seen as potentially dangerous and "unnatural."

To keep this from being the longest piece ever written I have provided a link to a paper that argues that the intensity of the Early Modern witch-hunts can be traced back to the plague of 1348, and argues that the plague was a factor in three ways. First, the plague’s devastation and the particularly unpleasant nature of the disease traumatized the European psyche, meaning that any potential recurrence of plague was a motivation to search for scapegoats. Second, the population depletion set off a chain of events that destabilized Europe. Finally, witch-hunters looked to the example set by the interrogators of suspected “plague-spreaders” and copied many of their interrogation and trial procedure.

You can access it here, as well as in my sources below.

The European Witch Trials: A Dark Chapter

Hello horrors of the European witch trials, which began in the late 15th century and extended into the 18th century. Here we saw women disproportionately accused of witchcraft; women who were often unmarried, widowed, or independent, and many who were healers and caretakers. Accusations were used to scapegoat marginalized individuals and maintain social order amidst times of uncertainty, including wars, plagues, and famines.

One of our first recorded victims is Katharina Henot, a middle-aged woman who lived in Basel, Switzerland. In 1428, she was accused of witchcraft after a young girl in the town claimed that Katharina had bewitched her. Katharina was interrogated and tortured, and she confessed to a number of crimes, including causing storms, ruining crops, and causing illness. She was eventually executed, and her case set a precedent for the use of torture in witch trials. This would sadly be one of the first of many witch trials that would take place in Europe over the next two centuries.

Now you may be asking, was there a book or something on this?! How did this information spread so widely? Well, thank you for asking because yes, there was. And, it came in the form of a book called Malleus Maleficarum, which was published in 1487. Written by two Dominican friars, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, it was essentially a "witch hunter's handbook." It laid out all of the ways that people could be accused of witchcraft and how to investigate and punish them. The book was highly influential and was used as a guide for witch trials throughout Europe. Many innocent people were accused and executed because of this book. One of the most interesting things about the Malleus Maleficarum is the way it viewed women. The book argued that women were naturally more likely to be witches because they were seen as morally and intellectually inferior to men. It said that women were weak, lustful, and easily seduced by the devil. This led to a lot of fear and suspicion of women, and it made it easier for women to be accused of witchcraft. Even women who were simply widowed or unmarried could be seen as suspect, since they didn't fit the "normal" role of a woman.

And if you’re asking, “Did it work?” Welp.

Let’s travel to Geneva, Switzerland in the year 1540. The government suspected sorcery was to blame for all their bad fortune, and they launched a campaign to identify and arrest sorcerers and witches. Religious leaders agreed with the superstitious prognosis and in a letter, dear old Protestant reformer John Calvin himself described a three-year “conspiracy” to “spread the plague” through sorcery. Over the course of three-months in that year alone, 34 people were executed for witchcraft. The women were burnt at the stake, and Calvin noted the men were “punished more severely.”

The city would go on to have a tough-on-crime reputation against witches. Lawmen from elsewhere in the Swiss confederation sought their advice on how to identify witches in their own cities who were thought to be spreading the plague and other diseases.

The plague would go on to haunt many parts of the world for centuries, and when that disease wasn’t raging, others were. Dysentery passed through contaminated food or drink, mosquitoes transmitted malaria, and viruses spread influenza and smallpox in ways that science could not yet explain.

After all was said and done, it's believed that between 50,000 and 100,000 people, the vast majority of them women, were executed during the European witch trials that lasted until the 1700’s.

Spinning the Classics: Salem

Of course this wouldn’t be a complete timeline of women in history without mentioning Salem, Massachusetts. The infamous Salem Witch Trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in 1692 and 1693 in Salem, Massachusetts. A group of young girls in the village began exhibiting strange behavior, which was attributed to witchcraft. A number of local women were accused of being witches, and many were put on trial. 19 of them were hanged, and one man was pressed to death with stones. Eventually, the trials ended and the governor of the colony apologized for the tragedy. But the damage had been done, and it took many years for the people involved to rebuild their reputations.

One of the most well-known cases from the Salem Witch Trials is that of Bridget Bishop. She was a local woman who was accused of bewitching several people in the community, including the young girls who were the first to exhibit strange behavior. Bridget was a widow who owned her own property, which made her a target for suspicion. After a trial that was highly unfair by modern standards, she was convicted and hanged. Her story is often seen as a cautionary tale about how false accusations and mass hysteria can lead to terrible consequences.

Some of the most famous “Witches”

Single women and widows weren’t the only targets. I mean this whole article is about the variations on women as witches and deathcare workers. So let’s pour one out for Agnes Sampson, a Scottish midwife. Agnes was accused of witchcraft in the late 1500s and was well-known and respected in her community, and was even said to be a confidante of the queen. But when a group of young girls began having mysterious fits, Agnes was accused of bewitching them. She was subjected to brutal torture and eventually forced to confess, after which she was executed. It's believed that the accusations against her may have been motivated by jealousy or resentment.

Joan Cunny, was also a famous midwife in England in the 1500s. She was well-known for her skill and expertise, and she was even called upon to assist with the births of members of the royal family. But she was also accused of witchcraft, and she was arrested and put on trial. Joan's case is notable because she was one of the first people to be acquitted of witchcraft charges, after a jury found her not guilty. Despite this, she was imprisoned again for a time and eventually died in prison.

Margaret Jones, a woman who was accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts in the 1640s. Margaret was a skilled midwife and herbalist, and she was highly respected in her community. But when a number of people fell ill, she was accused of causing the illnesses with her "magic." She was put on trial, found guilty, and hanged. Margaret's case is significant because it's one of the first witchcraft trials in the American colonies. It's also important because it highlights the conflict between traditional folk healing and the emerging field of modern medicine.

Witches and Herbalism

While it’s certainly possible that women were responsible for much of the original research into herbalism, there isn't always a clear record of who was doing this work. In many cases, women's contributions were not properly documented or recognized, so we don't know exactly how much of an impact they had. But it's clear that women have always been involved in the practice of herbalism, and they have a long history of using plants and herbs to heal and support their communities. Even today, many women continue to be interested in herbalism and traditional medicine.

Much of what I have cobbled together comes from mythology and general death records of women. In the medieval and early modern periods, many people believed that women who were knowledgeable about plants and herbs were also likely to be witches which resulted in their demise and loss of their knowledge. This belief was based on the idea that only someone with supernatural powers could know so much about the natural world. This connection between women, knowledge, and magic has been explored and in many ways documented in a lot of literature and art, from Shakespeare's Macbeth to the paintings of Artemisia Gentileschi.

It’s important to understand that it's not simply about women being persecuted for their knowledge or their relationship with nature. It's also about how power and knowledge have been gendered throughout history. In many cultures, women were not allowed to hold positions of power, and their knowledge was often dismissed or ignored. Women's knowledge of plants and herbs was seen as a threat to the established power structures, and this was one of the reasons why women were accused of witchcraft. This history is complex and often tragic, but it's also an important part of understanding the role of women in the past.

Bringing it Home

So what have we learned? Essentially, it wasn’t great being a woman. But, if I were to tie it all together and summarize this essay up it’s that, once upon a time women were allowed to embrace nature and the powers it held. Women created life and it was natural to assume that we would be a conduit to the other side of the realm. We were allowed to take care of the dead and honored and respected for our work. However, if there is one thing that’s remained constant throughout time, it’s man’s desire for power. And, anytime women, looked to be getting a little slice, it was quickly tamped down. This is really a timeline of the rich and religion ensuring that there was always someone else to blame for the problems going on it the world. And religion reappropriating the things that we as humans learned when we lived in harmony with nature and the world. The women that held onto this knowledge fought hard to pass it on to each coming generation, they risked their literal lives to have control over “magic” which was really just control over medicine that could provide a better and safer life. It was to pass on spells that gave hope to people that probably didn’t have a whole lot of it. And let me tell you, if you think that spells are total bullshit then you have apparently missed the entire “positive thinking and affirmations” movement. And you also apparently believe that a prayer to a saint is not a chant or a prayer to an ancestor for help or clarity on life. Magic is modern religion. Herbalism is modern day medicine. Spiritualism and deathcare is modern day mortuary work. And it’s exciting to see women getting a chance to reclaim the jobs that we used to hold, even if I still have grumbles on what I suspect all this is leading to, I want to end this all on a positive note.

Women are once again allowed access to education, and it’s important to note that this is, as of today, still not universally true. Right now there are women who are still being persecuted for daring to open a book. So tonight, light a candle, summon your ancestors; those wily women who managed to escape the wrath of Christianity and give you breath. And think on all the ways modern witches are still alive in today’s society. Be it modern wiccans celebrating the beauty of life and the ability to continue on the legacy that our mothers left for us. Or even the amazing ladies in the funeral industry who are honoring and caring for the dead the way the very first of us did.

Also wow. This was meant to be a short summary and I find that I am ending this still too soon. So perhaps join me in another edition of Mortician in the Kitchen, Witchcraft Edition. Oh, I like that ring!